Accident Analysis and Prevention 42 (2010) 1517–1522
Dov Zohar
這位以色列安全氣候大師的真面目與介紹
http://ie.technion.ac.il/Home/Users/dzohar.html
http://ie.technion.ac.il/Home/Users/dzohar0.html
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Sg5LbzNElkw
Disclaimer：
以下內容摘錄可能僅為片面理解的斷章取義，而敝人亦非安全文化與氣候學派的信徒(文末有一些作對的見解)
Most studies seem to have focused on climate measurement issues, including factorial structure of measurement scales and its predictive validity with regard to a variety of safety outcomes. Such a situation implies conceptual ambiguity and the need for greater effort directed at theoretical issues.
大師跳脫測量的信效度層次、看理論應用
The latter meta-analysis, based on a sample of 202 published studies that have passed the authors’ scientific inclusion criteria, encompassing 236 independent samples (N=127,266), attests also that time has come to re-focus our attention on theoretical and conceptual issues, having demonstrated the predictive validity of safety climate as a leading safety indicator.
Meta analysis與文獻回顧型文章
目的：
The purpose of the present paper is to highlight a number of conceptual issues associated with safety climate, hoping this would not only reduce conceptual ambiguity but stimulate a shift from practical to more theoretical issues, leading to the emergence of better developed safety-climate theory.
1. Conceptual attributes of the construct of safety climate
構念定義
Organizational climate is made up of shared perceptions among employees concerning the procedures, practices and kinds of behaviors that get rewarded and supported with regard to a specific strategic focus (Schneider, 1990).
這個construct 定義感覺是形成型formative的二階construct & 大雜燴；也難怪構念測量的信效度會一直有爭議
2. Relative priorities
Climate perceptions are aimed to uncover the kinds of behaviors that get rewarded and supported.
脫稿離題暴走的聯想=>搞人資的有更深刻的領悟http://wjchang.pixnet.net/blog/post/30126324
摘錄：
當我們談論到獎懲，問題就複雜得多。IT工程師在設定防火牆時因為一時疏忽導致駭客入侵公司而造成公司程式碼外洩，和員工在電腦裡安裝盜版軟體導致自己的電腦中毒，前者是不小心造成公司重大損失，後者是蓄意違反公司規定 ( 甚至還可能涉及違法 ) 但似乎影響比較輕微，這二個員工不當行為到底該怎麼處分？公司如何獎懲員工的優秀或不當行為，其實都在傳遞公司管理階層的價值觀給全體員工，讓每一個人對於「公司到底怎麼看待這些事情的優先順序」有一個非官方的解讀。當門市銷售員工為了滿足客戶的需要而讓公司少賺了一點點錢、當主管為了在某一個第三世界國家推動業務而決定贈送政府官員禮物、當公司明知道產品在製造過程會產生對生產線員工有微量毒性的物質卻隱匿事實不予改善、當公車駕駛貪圖一時的偷懶沒有依照標準作業規定執行車輛保養的工作、當員工主動針對不是自己的工作範圍的業務提出改善方案...有許多價值觀或管理信念，是沒有辦法清楚地用文字來描述的 ( 或者應該說，透過文字傳遞企業價值觀，只會流於口號而不會被員工當真 ) ，必須透過一次又一次的人事決策建立起標準。
Assessment of such behaviors is often cognitively challenging due to the complexity of the organizational environment. Climate perceptions ought to relate to the nature of relationships between or the relative priorities among these elements rather than to the consideration of individual elements in isolation.
重點在於各構面間的關連、(因果)先後而非有哪些構面
Safety climate perceptions should thus focus on the nature of relationships between safety policies, procedures, and practices, taking into account that oftentimes rules and procedures associated with safety compete with those associated with other domains (e.g. safety vs. productivity or efficiency)感覺安全氣候與安全績效其實是雞生蛋、蛋生雞的內生關係
I, therefore, believe that safety climate perceptions should be viewed from the perspective of “procedures-as-pattern” rather than to individual safety practices or procedures viewed in isolation. 大師的第一點洞見，看整體的程序所形成的行為模式，而非單一各項的規定與措施
3. Alignment between espousals and enactments
A second pattern-level attribute of safety climate is the alignment between espoused and enacted priorities. This attribute refers to the extent of convergence or divergence (i.e. alignment or misalignment) between words and deeds on behalf of managers at different levels of the organizational hierarchy
大師第二點洞見：看不同階層如何詮釋相關規定(言行不一)
不過這點在實務上很難，不是單單發發問卷而已，要進入到田野當中深入的觀察
4. Internal consistency
A third pattern level attribute of safety climate perceptions is the internal consistency among relevant policies, procedures and practices.
承續上一點看上有政策與下對策，與從高層政策到下層執行實務間的扭曲
5. Shared cognitions or social consensus
How do individual perceptions become shared? Why do groups engage in activities resulting in this emergence? These questions – focused on the antecedents of climate – have not received much attention in the literature yet this is another key attribute distinguishing climate perceptions from other more general employee perceptions.
5.1. Symbolic social interaction
Symbolic interactionism is the philosophical view that meaning and reality is socially construed, arising from cognitive exchanges among people seeking to comprehend their environment or the world they live in (Blumer, 1969; Stryker, 2008). In other words, the meaning of things and the interpretation of events arise from the interplay between one’s own perceptions and those of others in the same situation.安全氣候是團體成員認知與解讀的結果，會隨著時間改變
5.2. Leadership
Throughout much of the history of climate research, there has been a long-held proposition that “leaders create climate” (Lewin et al., 1939). The notion of leadership as a climate antecedent has hardly changed ever since.安全領導是安全氣候的因，不太會隨時間而改變？
欸，又是一個雞生蛋蛋生雞、一體兩面的學術爭議
6. The motivation for climate perceptions: social verification
Why do group members strive for shared perceptions?
I believe that a key reason for the creation of shared perceptions lies in the complexity and equivocality of the organizational environment. The management literature specifies a number of sources for such complexity, including the presence of competing values (Quinn and Rohrbaugh, 1983), competing operational demands (Lawrence and Lorsch, 1967), discrepancies between espousals and enactments (Simons, 2002), and cross-level variations in policy implementations (Zohar and Luria, 2005). Other sources relate to the multiplicity of organizational policies and procedures, accompanied by the fact that they are often little known or understood
by relevant employees (Hargie and Dickson, 2007; Stevens et al., 2005). Given the lack of a simple and rational structure, employees need to engage in interpretative and sense-making activities which involve a social-, interpersonal-based process (Weick, 1995).
才疏學淺/外行看熱鬧，感覺有說等於沒說
7. Safety climate and the safety pyramid
安全氣候的分析要考量以下層次與構面，形成以下金字塔架構
8. Concluding comments
First, by postulating that the targets of safety climate perceptions relate to system-level attributes such as relative priorities of competing demands, espousal-enactment gaps or discrepancies, or internal consistencies among policies and procedures, it becomes possible to differentiate safety climate from other perception-based constructs.這是否會把構念搞得更複雜？
Secondly, our discussion of levels of analysis suggests an additional avenue for conceptual development. Given that the target of climate perceptions can relate to the organization or group levels of analysis (i.e. senior management commitments and policies vs. supervisory or co-worker practices), it follows that climate measurement should be based on level-adjusted subscales offering separate measures for climates associated with respective organizational levels.構念複雜，測量當然也跟著複雜
Thirdly, given evidence that employees develop level-specific climate perceptions (e.g. “My supervisor is less/more concerned about our safety than senior management”), development of level specific subscales should be encouraged as it is likely to enhance measurement sensitivity and conceptual rigor.哇，問題如滾雪球般擴大….
Looking back over 30 years of my own and other safety-climate scholars’ research, my primary reflection is that we have achieved an enormous task of validating safety climate as a robust leading indicator or predictor of safety outcomes across industries and countries.
----------------我是實務界外行人不負責任感想的分隔線-------------------
1. 走火入魔的心理學延續&抽象構念自圓其說
2. 與其長篇大論申論什麼是安全氣候，能否反過來說明什麼不是安全氣候(與所謂安全氣候無關)？如果什麼都跟安全氣候有關，是否意味著有說等於沒說(還是抓不到重點)？
3. 大師的洞見在於看出所謂氣候的構念 有層次，各層次之間有差異(存在調節或中介效應？)；這點對於構念的定義、建構和測量而言，無異於砍掉重煉(但這是好事/令人欽佩)
4. 重點不在於所謂安全氣候與其樣貌，而在於到底什麼或哪些因素可以影響或塑造安全氣候！(如安全領導是塑造安全氣候的因，那麼怎麼樣可以塑造出好的安全領導？是指派Chief Safety Officer嗎？)
對立的鄉民見解
1.如何建立安全文化
http://eshmanager.blogspot.tw/2010/12/blog-post_12.html
2.從心理學角度談環安
http://eshmanager.blogspot.tw/2011/11/1.html
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