Protecting the planet and its people: How do interventions to promote environmental sustainability and occupational safety and health overlap?
什麼樣的行為改變手法可以提升環境永續與職安衛？
Source：Journal of Safety Research 41 (2010) 407–416
Authors：Thomas R. Cunningham , Neville Galloway-Williams , E. Scott Geller
感想：
1. 這是篇心理學領域,與相關理論彙整的文章，雖然看得非常吃力，但收穫比看一些二手的安全文化/氣候文章來得多；有想要搞安全文化的實務界夥伴，可以參考本文當中的許多insight.
2. 原來杜邦的安全文化背後是有些學問的（只是沒想到看起來很唬爛的背後，竟然有那麼多的心理學的理論與實證）http://ohsonline.com/pages/~/media/OHS/OHS/Summit/A3_Krzywicki.ashx
3. 當年拿了公司的預算來辦安全競賽活動(被現場部門視為發錢的員外)，只是直覺工安必須要讓同仁參與才有意義，結果反而搞得現場針對缺失件數斤斤計較與關說；現在看了這篇文章與回想起來，當年果然是外行人在亂搞，還好廠長對於環安不關心(或說不知如何關心起)也不知道如何著手，還好多虧了有位美工宣傳、發想創意與和現場關係超好的工作夥伴-小葉（這位歐巴桑是現場助理出身、完全沒有環安的專業經驗與證照，但她就是有本事抓住現場同仁的眼睛與心理），所以對於上面廠長與下面現場直間接人員的環安Keywords:
Environmental sustainability、Behavioral intervention、Occupational safety Worker health、Translational research
Abstract：
Problem: The challenges of both occupational safety and health and environmental sustainability require large-scale behavior change for meaningful improvements to occur. Environmental sustainability, or the ‘green movement’ has received far more attention recently, and certain strategies and recommendations from interventions designed for promoting pro-environmental behaviors may inform efforts to intervene on critical behaviors for improving occupational safety and health.
Method: A survey of the literature regarding behavioral interventions for both environmental sustainability and occupational safety and health was conducted. Several theoretical approaches are reviewed, and successful approaches from each domain are identified, as well as parallel challenges and points for crossover. Recommendations are provided for adapting environmental sustainability intervention approaches for occupational safety and health applications.
Impact on Industry: Safety and health leaders may achieve sustainable improvements in worker safety and health by harnessing the momentum of the green movement and adapting successful intervention approaches from the environmental sustainability domain.
Introduction
緣由與研究問題
Do professionals working in environmental sustainability and occupational safety merely “re-invent the wheel” through trial-and-error methods of developing interventions with varying levels of success?
Could what environmental psychologists have learned about recycling be useful to the occupational safety manager who is trying to promote the use of fall protection? Could the theoretical models that underlie interventions to reduce energy consumption be applied in efforts to prevent workplace injury?
2.Method：
文獻回顧與整理
A search of the literature was conducted to locate research relevant to behavioral interventions for promoting safety and sustainability. Initial searches for relevant documents were conducted using Google Scholar.
Documents selected for relevance included 52 published journal articles, 11 books and book chapters, and 1 unpublished doctoral dissertation.
3. Environmental Sustainability
3.1. Behavior-Based Applications（行為學派）
Van Liere and Dunlap (1980) reviewed a number of hypotheses to explain the presence or absence of environmental concern. They list the five demographic variables most often cited as relevant to environmental concern: age, social class, residence, political affiliation, and gender. The authors in fact find little support in the experimental research for any of these variables as predictors of environmental concern.
然而這些人口統計變數（年齡、性別、社會階層、居住地、政黨傾向）對於人的環境關懷只有些許的預測能力
Gardner and Stern's (1996) book, Environmental problems and human behavior, provides a useful analysis of ERBs（environmentally responsible behaviors） from a behavioral perspective. Especially useful is their taxonomy of behaviors as efficiency behaviors versus curtailment behaviors.
Efficiency behaviors are single behaviors that have a significant and long-term impact on the environment, usually through the use of efficient technology.
These behaviors may include purchasing energy-efficient vehicles or appliances or orienting a house on a lot to take the best advantage of natural light.
In contrast, curtailment behaviors are those that must be repeated to have a meaningful impact, such as recycling, using mass transit instead of driving, and taking shorter showers.
然而以上的分類並無法對於提昇人員的環境關懷有何實務上的具體建議與方向
Osbaldiston's (2004) meta-analysis of 62 studies on the promotion of environmentally responsible behaviors, which included 133 effect sizes. The greatest effect sizes were found in interventions that used making a commitment or goal-setting for their manipulations. Unlike Lehman and Geller, Osbaldiston found that such strategies were even more effective than reward contingencies.
讓員工承諾與設定目標，比獎勵的方法來的更有效
（是否為畢馬龍效應亦或員工不會承諾自己達不到的目標？）
3.2. Personal Value, Attitude, and Personality links with Behavior（個性/價值觀與行為的連結）
Schwartz (1992) identified two factors along which all values could be placed: individuals are motivated by their own interests vs. the welfare of others) and openness versus conservation. Karp (1996) used Schwartz's theory to determine the types of values usually related to ERB. Karp found that values reflecting both self transcendence and openness were positively correlated with ERBs, whereas values that reflected self-enhancement and conservation were negatively correlated with ERBs.
開放(相對於保守)與博愛(相對於自私)的人，與ERBs有正相關
Geller's (1995) actively caring model hypothesized that an individual's propensity to actively care mediates the relationship between certain personality factors (self-esteem, belonging, and personal control) and the performance of ERBs. Actively caring is a construct related to altruism, and describes when an individual is motivated not for personal needs, but for the needs of others and for his or her larger community.
人格特質是獨立變數項，個人的主動關懷傾向是中介變數，而ERBs則是依變數
This model would apply to workplace safety behaviors; propensity to actively care should also mediate the relationship between personality factors and performing safety behaviors that involve demonstrating concern for others, such as making a coworker aware of a safety hazard or reminding them to use PPE. Indeed, this model was developed in the safety domain (Geller, 1996)
原來Geller將行為與心理方面的理論，擴散到環境關懷與安全行為面，進而成為安全氣候/文化大師。
3.3. Theory of Planned Behavior計畫行為理論
Researchers have also applied Ajzen's (1991) Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) to ERB performance. This theory posits that three main components should be considered in predicting an individual's behavior: attitude toward the behavior, subjective norm, and perceived control.
These cognitions, in turn, are better predictors of ERBs.
Goal-directed behaviors as being a satisfactory explanation of intention to perform ecological behaviors.
設定明確的目標有助於提升關懷環境行為
Another study that purported to extend the TPB included self identity as a predictor of pro-environmental behaviors (Whitmarsh & O'Neill, 2010).
又回到一開始行為學派強調的人口變數？
3.4. Self-Determination Theory
Self-Determination Theory (SDT) is a theory of motivation predicated on the notion that we have needs for competency, autonomy, and belongingness, and these needs, although often in competition with each other, direct our behavior (Deci & Ryan, 2002).這句話有說等於沒說
可以促進環境關懷行為的內外在動機包含
外部：自治權、外在規範與制約
內部：成就感、節儉、參與感
3.5. Perceived Consumer Effectiveness and Social Marketing（社會行銷與塑造顧客良好印象）
Perceived consumer effectiveness (PCE) is a marketing theory that explains prosocial behavior is determined by the extent of the impact the behavior is believed to have, or how much the consumer thinks that what he or she does will make a difference.
Obermiller (1995) applied PCE theory to an experimental evaluation of two interventions designed to promote ERBs. The "sick baby" approach emphasizes the severity of a problem, whereas the “well baby” approach emphasizes the potential impact of an individual's behavior to solve the problem. From the marketing standpoint, the well baby approach is theorized to increase perceived consumer effectiveness. The authors found the success of a message depended on the issue – for a highly salient issue, the well baby approach was significantly more effective, whereas for an issue of low salience, the sick baby approach was more effective. A major limitation of the study is that the outcome variable was not actual behavior, but consumer rating of the persuasiveness of a message and importance of an issue. Thus, there is no guarantee these differential impacts would hold at the level of behavior.
越顯著的議題，要強調個人可以做什麼比較有助於激發環境關懷行為
較不顯著的議題，相對的則要強調此一問題的嚴重性
Cornelissen, Dewitte, Warlop, and Yzerbyt (2007) found that: (a) social labeling was particularly effective in guiding future choice when processing the label occurred during a distraction task (thus under cognitive load); (b) asking participants to reflect specifically on their motivation following social labeling negated the impact of the labeling on future choice, ostensibly because they were given the chance to “correct” the attribution; (c) social labeling has an effect on decision-making when that distraction occurs during the decision making process; and (d) during repeated decision-making (a more externally valid condition), the impact of social labeling increased with successive decisions and the cognitive load likely associated with this task.
從行銷的角度來詮釋事業單位的一些環境關懷行為（許多所謂的綠色企業，說穿了還是要做生意賺錢，所謂的環保不過是營利行為的包裝與塑造品牌形象，哪個拍片的米國副總統真是個具備高明騙術與唬濫技巧的政客）
3.6. Theory Integration
Stern (2000) provided an overview of the literature pertaining to promoting ERBs and attempted to provide a coherent theory to encompass these findings. Stern explains his value-belief-norm theory of environmentalism and describes a model of the psychological factors involved. Of particular note and potential use in the safety domain is Stern's identification of four variables that cause ERBs: attitudes, contextual forces, personal capabilities, and habit/routine.
3.7. Limitations and Persistent Challenges
略
3.8. Summary and Recommendations
Elements of successful interventions to promote ERBs: (a) identifying key community members to serve as agents of change (Tribbia, 2007), (b) associating the target behaviors with positive emotional experiences (Carrus et al., 2008), (c) supporting the process of initiation, maintenance, and generalization required for internalization (Osbaldiston & Sheldon, 2003), (d) tailoring the intervention to targeted individuals of low concern (using social norms) or high concern (using situational cognitions; Bamberg, 2003), (e) applying social labeling techniques (Cornelissen et al., 2007, 2008), and (f) highlighting the impact of individual behavior (Ellen et al., 1991)
4. Occupational Safety and Health
Outside of the realm of behavior-based safety (BBS) research, most of the studies examined with respect to safety behaviors involved collecting survey data and using correlational statistics to test theoretical models that could then be applied to the design of interventions. While BBS studies often tested various intervention approaches, very few studies were found that used randomized, experimental methods to compare intervention techniques.
行為安全的研究沒有外部效度？
4.1. Social Cognitive Theory 社會認知理論
found that the campaign was moderately effective, although not particularly strong, and that individuals working in targeted industries reported engaging in more safe behaviors than individuals in non-targeted industries. They also found that the relationship between promotional activities and reported behavioral change was modified by three constructs: exposure, learning, and development of efficacy beliefs.
4.2. Theory of Planned Behavior
found that attitudes toward behavior and subjective norms were significant predictors of intentions to perform behavior, while control perception was not.
Additionally, there was a significant amount of variance left unexplained by the constructs involved in TPB.
顯示TPB這個理論的解釋力不佳
4.3. Regulatory Focus
found support for the predicted moderating effect of task complexity: when a task is complex, promotion and safety are negatively correlated, as are prevention and productivity in the same situation; when a task is simple, though, these relationships are both positive.
任務複雜度是調節變數=>複雜的任務，安全與生產兩者是負相關(衝突)
簡單的任務狀況下，則安全與生產兩者不相衝突
4.4. Workplace Health Promotion
They ultimately suggest two ways to optimize the effects of providing information on behavior change: providing a long list of common risk behaviors, or a shorter list of uncommon risk behaviors. Models provided offer an intriguing perspective on including positive psychology approaches to interventions by not only focusing on decreasing unsafe, unhealthy behaviors, but also on increasing safe, healthy behaviors in order to integrate safety into a comprehensive model of health behavior.
4.5. Behavioral Intervention
By basic training of employees regarding certain safe and at-risk behaviors, systematic observation and recording of targeted behaviors, and feedback to workers regarding the frequency of safe versus at-risk behavior
Incentives and feedback enhanced safety and/or reduced workplace injuries in every study, they also raise several points regarding limitations of the behavioral approach, including lack of clear evidence for sustained impact and lack of an answer to whether some incentives are more effective than others.
Geller (1990) identified the major components that contribute to a successful workplace intervention: management's visible commitment, a well-defined and enforced policy of compliance, and consequence incentives to promote adoption and maintenance of the behavior. Geller (1990) lists five additional components that contribute to successful workplace campaigns, which include:
targeting observable behavior, examining influential external factors, directing with activators, focusing on positive consequences as motivators, and application of the scientific method to assess and improve interventions (for recommendations on intervention implementation,
4.6. Additional Relevant Research
The responsibility for avoiding risk then becomes an issue of individual (behavioral) decisions rather than systematic (technological) controls.
Interesting point is that large work sites will often be overseen by the unions, and are likely to be safer sites than those of smaller projects with non-union workers.
4.7. Limitations and Persistent Challenges
Of primary importance is that most of the articles reviewed in the occupational safety and health field involved survey data to assess theoretical explanations, and few true experiments were conducted. Additionally, there was a notable reliance on self-reports of behavior.
5. Existing Parallels
Geller (2009) lists the parallel barriers to safety behavior and pro-environmental behaviors: (a) denial, (b) bad habits, (c) diffusion of responsibility, (d) belief that individual efforts will not make a difference, and (e) motivation by primarily soon and certain consequences
Other parallels that emerge include the limited effectiveness of awareness (i.e., informational) campaigns in promoting safe behaviors and sustainable behaviors
6. Potentials for Cross-Over
略
才疏學淺看不太懂各大理論派別間的差異與奧妙
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